“Our Health Care System Has Significant Safety And Quality

â€Å"Our health care system has significant safety and quality problems, Linda Cronenwett said. To fix that, we need to redesign what and how we teach the next generation of nurses and other healthcare professionals so that they understand what goes into ensuring good and safe care, and can identify and bridge the gaps between what is and what should be† (Hirst, O Segedy, 2011). Robert Wood Johnson Foundation funds national study to educate nursing students on patient safety and healthcare quality. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation awarded the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Nursing a $590,000 grant to evaluate and enhance nursing school curriculum on the topics of quality and safety. The project ambition was to†¦show more content†¦Phase III, worked to develop faculty expertise necessary for nursing schools to teach the competencies. The focus was on instilling the competencies in textbooks, licensing, accreditation and certification standar ds; and promotion which continued innovation in teaching the competencies. The six competencies are patient-centered care, teamwork and collaboration, evidence-based practice, quality improvement, safety, and informatics. In the first two phases of QSEN, the goal was to identify what s out there now, what s missing, and what s wrong. The conclusion reached was that our nursing schools need to equip the next generation of nurses to help drive change in health care. Therefore in the final phase of the project, there was innovation in the way students were taught, tested, and certified (Hirst, O Segedy, 2011). Many patients lack access to care due to the severe nursing shortage, and the lack of safety and quality care. The next generation of nurses, can make important contributions on all fronts, if they take on the challenge. The QSEN project promotes continued innovation in the development and evaluation of methods to promote and assess student learning of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of the six competencies and theShow MoreRelatedQuality And Safety Education For Nurses1347 Words   |  6 Pages Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN): The Key is Systems Thinking Article Critique Milagros Cruz Goodwin College RN – BSN Program NUR 460: Seminar in Professional Nursing Leadership Summer 2015 Introduction Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) was developed with the purpose of providing professional nurses with the knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA) necessary to continuously improve the quality and safety of the health care systems within which theyRead MoreMedical Care At The United States994 Words   |  4 PagesSummary Medical care in the United States is complex at the individual provider level, at the system level, and at the national level. 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Role of Islam in Economic Develpoment Free Essays

International Ataturk-Alatoo University Role of Islam in Economic Development Done: Aizhamal ZHUMALIEVA Checked: Ibragim KONCAK 2012 Content Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1 Statistics and Trends†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦2 Economics of Wealth Generation †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 Islamic Merchants†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 Islamic Law and Economic Growth†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 Islamic Banking†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 6 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 Introduction Researchers like Huntington (1996), Landes (1999), and Inglehart and Baker (2000) argue that explanations for economic growth should go further to include a nation’s culture. We will write a custom essay sample on Role of Islam in Economic Develpoment or any similar topic only for you Order Now Their argument absolutely makes sense because culture affects personal traits such as honesty, thrift, willingness to work hard, and openness to stranges, which consequently influences economic outcomes. Religion is thought to be one of the most important dimensions of culture. Thus Weber (1930) argued that religious practices and beliefs had important consequences for economic development. Islam is no exception, just as David Landes, the Harvard economic historian, wrote in his book â€Å"The Wealth and Poverty of Nations†, â€Å"No one can understand the economic performance of the Muslim nations without attending to the experience of Islam as faith and culture,† In 10th century, which is known as Golden Age for Islam, Muslim societies led the world in science, philosophy, culture and prosperity. But soon it came to the end, and Islamic countries have long lagged behind other countries. It is easy to define with the help of analysis of current international financial data. Those data highlight the great inequality in income between Christian dominant and Muslim dominant countries. The richest countries in the world are those of Europe, North America, and East Asia. Only a small number of Muslim countries approach to their income levels, and this is only due to their oil wealth. In many of Muslim countries income growth is low so that gap is widening. Scholars are sure that it is not just coincidence but Islam has significant influence on economic ascents and descents. If it is so, what role does Islam play in economic performance? How does it affect economic advancement? What spheres and industries does Islam influence? Is there any way to solve the problem? The purpose of this paper is to show the relationship between Islam and economy and critique some Islamic mechanisms that drag the economic activity. The first part of the paper suggests some statistical data that reflects general image of economic state of Islamic countries. Next section defines the process of wealth generation and impact of Islam on capital, innovation, and literacy. After, Islamic trading patterns are analyzed. Then Timur Kuran’s, well-known economist, arguments about economic effect of Islam are stated. And the last part reviews Islamic financial institutions. Statistics and Trends Level of economic development, whether measured by per capita income or variables like trade, literacy, science, scholarship and technology, has long been lower in the Islamic world than in Christian world, especially those of in West. Here is one empirical data that prove this situation with income per capita being a dependent variable. Table 1 is a regression model, which include 132 countries covered by the World Development Report for 1995, shows that relationship exists between Islam and per capita income. In the first regression, independent variable is the share of Muslim within total population, this regression indicates statistically significant negative relationship between two variables, but its fit is poor. The second regression, which includes additional independent variable, has considerably better fit. Membership in OPEC turns out to be a significant contributor to income, and location in Subsaharan Africa a highly significant depressor. The Muslim share of population remains very significant negative determinant of income. The model also reflects the fact that the African, South Asian, and East Asian countries with large Muslim minorities tend to be poorer than countries with Muslim majorities located in the Middle East. Table 1 The Relationship between Islam and Per Capita Income | (1)| (2)| Constant| 3. 33| 3. 55| Share Muslim| -0. 41***(-2. 57)| -2. 07****(-2. 87)| Square Share Muslim| | 1. 76**(2. 29)| OPEC Member| | 0. 42*(2. 20)| Susaharan Africa| | -0. 67*****(-5. 77)| R-squared| 0. 4| 0. 34| Notes: 132 countries were included in the regression. Asterisks *, **, ***, ****, ***** denote significance at the 0. 03, 0. 2, 0. 01, 0. 005, and 0. 0000 levels, respectively. Following charts show the Muslim share of global income and the share of global population. Income share is 5. 98 %, which is strikingly less than population share, which is 19. 22 %. According to this data we can assume that Muslims average income obviously lower than of non-Muslims. In most of the countries, where Muslims live in l arge numbers, are generally poorer. And few will deny this fact. To investigate how this outcome came up I will review the process of wealth creation and the role of Islam in this process. Figure 1 Economics of Wealth Generation Level of income in an economy is related to the volume of goods and services produced. The amount of this production in the long term is determined by three factors: the availability and exploitation of natural resource; the quantity of productive capacity in terms of buildings, infrastructure, machinery plant and equipment; and the availability, ability, training and resourcefulness of the workforce. These â€Å"factors of production† are essential to income producing capacities. Natural resource endowment of a country is a matter of circumstance, religion has nothing to do with availability of natural resource. Islamic countries, especially those in the Middle East are very lucky to have oil wealth, the biggest contributor to Muslim economy. Physical resources however are man-made. The availability of these resources depends on accumulation of physical investment in building construction, purchase of equipment and maintenance of the stock of these assets. It is here that the culture and religion, Islam in particular, may play a role. In order to create physical productive asset, what economists call â€Å"capital†, long process of planning, risk taking, vision and enterprise are required. Arthur Lewis (1955, 105) argued in his textbook on economic growth: â€Å"Some religions are more compatible with economic growth than others. If religion stress upon material value, upon work, upon thrift and productive investment, upon honesty in commercial relations, upon experimentation and risk bearing, and upon equality of opportunity, it will be helpful to growth, whereas in so far as it is hostile to this things, it tends to inhibit growth. † He did not provide the classifications of religion according to their support for development. But other economists like Luigi Guiso, Paola Sapienza, and luigi Zingales did. They conducted a multinational set of surveys that covers sixty-six countries. In a study that appeared in the Journal of Monetary Economics, they noted that, â€Å"on average, Christian religions are more positively associated with attitudes that are conductive to economic growth, while Islam is negatively associated. † In comparison with people of other religion, Muslims were generally less disposed to agree with pro-market statements such as â€Å"Competition is good†, â€Å"private ownership of business an industry should be increased†. It means that Muslims are not willing to adopt industrialization and modernization, without which creation of capital is barely possible. Report clearly indicates that Islam sufficiently discouraging economic development in terms of physical resources. The same opinion had Daniel (19958, 405) who wrote in his best-known work, The Passing of Traditional Society, that â€Å"the top policy problem, for three generations of Middle Eastern leaders, has been whether one must choose between ‘Mecca or Mechanization’ or whether one can make them compatible. He observed that Islam was inimical to the structural changes essential to the Islamic world’s progress. Affirmatively Islam played very effective role in capital creation and obviously negative. So, if country’s aim was to develop, choice would ultimately get resolved in favor of ‘mechanization’. The third factor of production is human resource. This is not jus a matter of population. People need t o be educated and trained in order to make use of the physical capital. Religion may play a role here too – possibly negative one. To the question whether Islam contributed to shaping the educational system that limited curiosity and innovation Lewis (1982, 229) answers in the affirmative. But how? Islam highly encourages education. It might have stemmed from the closure of the gate ‘ijtihad’, which meant end of freedom of innovation, independent judgment, and that all answers were already available and needed merely to follow and obey. Treating Islamic learning as perfection helped support an educational system that emphasized rot learning and memorization at the expense of problem solving. Granting that the prevailing educational system must have limited inquisitiveness and innovation, it could have extinguished new ideas and the desire for change. This resulted in overwhelmingly illiterate Muslim population. The scene has not changed a lot in present days either, series of reports for United Nations pointed out that adult literacy rate barely topped fifty percent, which is disastrous for economic development. If there is no human resource who can tackle technology, machinery what are they needed for anyway? The nature of progress is improvements in physical capital over time that deliver increased output for given amount of material and labor input – higher productivity. By labor meant highly educated and trained people, whom obviously lacks Muslim world. This ‘knowledge deficit’ has severely impeded economic growth. One thing that I cannot skip is the attitude toward women in Islam. In Islam women are inferior to men. Recent figures from the International Labor Organizations, published by world Bank, indicate that in the Middle East and North Africa, women comprise 28 % of the total labor force, whereas the world average is 40 %. As a group, these countries have the lowest female labor force participation in the world. One of the lowest figures is Saudi Arabia with 16%. This is reflection of cultural values regarding women in Muslim countries, values inseparable from religious values, which form following consequences. First, it decreases the overall income of country. If women were engaged in paid employment, increasing the labor force by 30%, additional contribution to national income would be around of 10%. Second, this limitation reduces potential production. Third, it is associated with higher birth in these countries, which correspondingly per capita income growth rate. So, this Islamic wise about women contribute to relative poverty. Now, as we have obtained sufficient image on how Islam has influenced the process of wealth generation I would like to take a quick look at Muslims trading patterns. Islamic Merchants The fact that Muslims ended up to be poor at trading puzzles me because the founder of Islam, The Prophet Muhammad is believed to have been a merchant, and in one occasion he reportedly said, â€Å"The trustworthy merchant will sit I in the shade of Allah’s throne. It is especially puzzling that Muslim merchants, given that early Islamic thought harbor certain pro-competitive traditions, along with Muslim consumers who stood to benefit from greater competition, failed to counter the anti-competitive influence of the guilds. Sabri Ulgener (1981) suggests that trading patterns were influenced by the economic morality as sociated with Islam. The foremost objective of Muslims’ economic doctrine is to replace the individualistic economic morality with a communalist morality. Which means Muslim do not support private ownership and income inequality, which is necessary to provide incentive for individual effort, and it leads to discouraging consequences for merchants. As private property rights were not protected in Islamic countries it is possible that trade with Muslims or in their countries was inefficient, and merchants simply avoided having any deal in Muslim world. Of course this is not the only reason for static trading pattern, there are tons of factors that could affect it. We just see that Islamic morality might have had an impact on merchants. Islamic Law and Economic growth The economist Timur Kuran, who grew up in Turkey and teaches at Duke University, traced the causes of fault in achieving industrialization and stable growth in his well acclaimed book, The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East. Islamic societies were slow to develop banks, commercial courts, joint stock companies, and the business organizations, for which Kuran blames social customs and religious rules, i. . Islamic laws. He focuses on laws covering business partnership and inheritance practices. These, he argues, discouraged the emergence of modern industrial corporations. In medieval times, trading partnership was the leading form of the business in the Middle East. In Islamic partnership any individual partner could end the relationship at will, and even the most successful ventures were terminated on the death of partner. As a result of these rule, most bu sinesses tended to be small and short-lived. By the end of nineteenth century, the most durable trading entities in many Islamic countries were operated by non-Muslims, such as Armenians and Jews, Kuran adds, these organizations too were limited in their ability to raise money from outsiders because the region lacked non-governmental financial channels. And this held back the establishment of corporations which would do huge contributions to economy. The other thing, according to Kuran, which hindered business consolidation is inheritance customs. Quran dictated that if Muslim merchant died at least two-third of his estate had to be split among surviving family members. This egalitarian Islamic law of inheritance discouraged the accumulation of wealth by dividing it among family members. The permissibility of polygamy fueled this problem as it divided the assets of wealthy merchants with multiple wives and children. Further, it prevented the creation of long-lasting, capital-intensive companies. These provocative claims are not backed up by statistical and empirical works, they generally derived basing only on a history. One can argue that claims are just hollow claims as Adeel Malik, professor in University of Oxford, did. But Kuran’s claims are sound and rational. In Western countries for instance giant corporations were vital part of economic engine, which fueled prosperity, and they didn’t have any rules slightly related to those of Islamic. This could mean that Kuran is right with his arguments and Muslims should pay a little attention to them and may be check up their rules and see whether it is compatible with modern economic and financial system. Islamic Banking While investigating Islamic economy, it is impossible to ignore their financial system. Islamic economic doctrine on prohibition against riba, Arabic word which means â€Å"interest† or â€Å"usury†, is widely known. Muslim world convinced that conventional financial system is decadent, immoral and inequitable. However, in modern world, the one who is out of this system is out of economic advancement because financial institutions are the only monetary support for a business investment. Muslims may think that Muslim lenders and borrowers have long found their own ways to circumvent, but some data prove the opposite. First of all Islamic Banks are deficient. These banks exist not in all predominantly Islamic nations. They have constituted only a small share of the national banking system. For instance in thirteen out of fifteen major Islamic countries listed by Henry and Wilson (2004 b:7), Islamic banks accounted for less than 17% of the share of commercial bank deposits in late 1990s, in Algeria, Iraq, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Syria, and Tunisia Islamic banks were nonexistent or minuscule. By the year 2000 only three countries – Iran, Pakistan, and Sudan- had Islamized their banking system. The implication of this information is that Islamic bank appears to be important in only very small number of Muslim countries. Shortage of banks is huge obstacle for new investments and emergence of any industrial businesses. Furthermore, Islamic banks are at a competitive disadvantage before other domestic or foreign bans for three reasons. First, a problem of moral hazard arises. Second, accounts in an Islamic bank must yield a return at least close to that of their competitors in order to attract deposits. Third, these banks are burdened with a curious problem of adverse selection. So, the future of Islamic banking does not seem to be glowing. As we see, the prohibition on interest serves no beneficial purpose. Elaborate scheme to circumvent such transactions because of their supposed immorality or due to their prohibition serve no purpose but except to increase costs and increase inefficiency. Conclusion This paper has reviewed important areas of economic activity and the role of Islam in it. And religion affirmatively has great influence on economy of Islamic world. Basing on all finding I conclude that Islam was inconductive to economic development, or at least less supportive than was Christian dominant countries. Few Muslims appreciated the discoveries and innovation, which has been fatal cause for physical resource or capital. The nature of Islamic education was not helpful in developing open minded citizens fully equipped to fulfill their ambitions and potential. Islamic attitude toward women negatively affects production and income. Very few Muslims were seeking to capitalize, which caused uncomfortable conditions for merchants. The constraints and costs imposed on financial institutions by the nominal prohibition on interest payments preclude a free market in financial capital, causing inefficiencies, moral hazard in banking system, and limiting the funds for investment. These were drawbacks of religion that possibly caused stagnation in Islamic countries. And of course there are ways of getting out of this situation. Recent history provides examples of Muslim countries seeking to engage I the global economy and some of them succeeding. Indonesia, for instance, in 2008 its inflation adjusted GDP per capita was five and half times what it was in 1990, in Malasia during the same period, it rose almost six fold. Just a generation ago, both of these nations were overwhelmingly rural and poverty stricken. Today, they are industrialized middle-income countries. May be some Islamic countries should follow the lead of Turkey, the country which was transformed into an economically vibrant democracy. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, founder of Turkish Republic, in 1929 abolished the caliphate and imposed strict church-state divide. After 1980, Turgut Ozal removed barriers to foreign trade and investment. Party’s Islamic heritage hasn’t prevented it from embracing a policy of economic modernization. Today, Turkey is the world’s fifteenth-largest economy and a member of G-20. Example of Turkey suggests that it is possible to industrialize, modernize and still be faithful to religion, but Islam should not intervene in economic and political activities for its own sake, this will prevent Islam from being changed under the political influence and will maintain its cleanness. So, Islamic countries are not in perfect condition, however they have all opportunities to prosper. This research paper analyzed just some of the factors, further researches and surveys needs to be conducted to identify other possible problems of static economy of Muslim world and to provide empirical and statistical information on Timur Kuran’s arguments. References How to cite Role of Islam in Economic Develpoment, Papers Role of Islam in Economic Develpoment Free Essays International Ataturk-Alatoo University Role of Islam in Economic Development Done: Aizhamal ZHUMALIEVA Checked: Ibragim KONCAK 2012 Content Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1 Statistics and Trends†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦2 Economics of Wealth Generation †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 Islamic Merchants†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 Islamic Law and Economic Growth†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 Islamic Banking†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 6 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 Introduction Researchers like Huntington (1996), Landes (1999), and Inglehart and Baker (2000) argue that explanations for economic growth should go further to include a nation’s culture. We will write a custom essay sample on Role of Islam in Economic Develpoment or any similar topic only for you Order Now Their argument absolutely makes sense because culture affects personal traits such as honesty, thrift, willingness to work hard, and openness to stranges, which consequently influences economic outcomes. Religion is thought to be one of the most important dimensions of culture. Thus Weber (1930) argued that religious practices and beliefs had important consequences for economic development. Islam is no exception, just as David Landes, the Harvard economic historian, wrote in his book â€Å"The Wealth and Poverty of Nations†, â€Å"No one can understand the economic performance of the Muslim nations without attending to the experience of Islam as faith and culture,† In 10th century, which is known as Golden Age for Islam, Muslim societies led the world in science, philosophy, culture and prosperity. But soon it came to the end, and Islamic countries have long lagged behind other countries. It is easy to define with the help of analysis of current international financial data. Those data highlight the great inequality in income between Christian dominant and Muslim dominant countries. The richest countries in the world are those of Europe, North America, and East Asia. Only a small number of Muslim countries approach to their income levels, and this is only due to their oil wealth. In many of Muslim countries income growth is low so that gap is widening. Scholars are sure that it is not just coincidence but Islam has significant influence on economic ascents and descents. If it is so, what role does Islam play in economic performance? How does it affect economic advancement? What spheres and industries does Islam influence? Is there any way to solve the problem? The purpose of this paper is to show the relationship between Islam and economy and critique some Islamic mechanisms that drag the economic activity. The first part of the paper suggests some statistical data that reflects general image of economic state of Islamic countries. Next section defines the process of wealth generation and impact of Islam on capital, innovation, and literacy. After, Islamic trading patterns are analyzed. Then Timur Kuran’s, well-known economist, arguments about economic effect of Islam are stated. And the last part reviews Islamic financial institutions. Statistics and Trends Level of economic development, whether measured by per capita income or variables like trade, literacy, science, scholarship and technology, has long been lower in the Islamic world than in Christian world, especially those of in West. Here is one empirical data that prove this situation with income per capita being a dependent variable. Table 1 is a regression model, which include 132 countries covered by the World Development Report for 1995, shows that relationship exists between Islam and per capita income. In the first regression, independent variable is the share of Muslim within total population, this regression indicates statistically significant negative relationship between two variables, but its fit is poor. The second regression, which includes additional independent variable, has considerably better fit. Membership in OPEC turns out to be a significant contributor to income, and location in Subsaharan Africa a highly significant depressor. The Muslim share of population remains very significant negative determinant of income. The model also reflects the fact that the African, South Asian, and East Asian countries with large Muslim minorities tend to be poorer than countries with Muslim majorities located in the Middle East. Table 1 The Relationship between Islam and Per Capita Income | (1)| (2)| Constant| 3. 33| 3. 55| Share Muslim| -0. 41***(-2. 57)| -2. 07****(-2. 87)| Square Share Muslim| | 1. 76**(2. 29)| OPEC Member| | 0. 42*(2. 20)| Susaharan Africa| | -0. 67*****(-5. 77)| R-squared| 0. 4| 0. 34| Notes: 132 countries were included in the regression. Asterisks *, **, ***, ****, ***** denote significance at the 0. 03, 0. 2, 0. 01, 0. 005, and 0. 0000 levels, respectively. Following charts show the Muslim share of global income and the share of global population. Income share is 5. 98 %, which is strikingly less than population share, which is 19. 22 %. According to this data we can assume that Muslims average income obviously lower than of non-Muslims. In most of the countries, where Muslims live in l arge numbers, are generally poorer. And few will deny this fact. To investigate how this outcome came up I will review the process of wealth creation and the role of Islam in this process. Figure 1 Economics of Wealth Generation Level of income in an economy is related to the volume of goods and services produced. The amount of this production in the long term is determined by three factors: the availability and exploitation of natural resource; the quantity of productive capacity in terms of buildings, infrastructure, machinery plant and equipment; and the availability, ability, training and resourcefulness of the workforce. These â€Å"factors of production† are essential to income producing capacities. Natural resource endowment of a country is a matter of circumstance, religion has nothing to do with availability of natural resource. Islamic countries, especially those in the Middle East are very lucky to have oil wealth, the biggest contributor to Muslim economy. Physical resources however are man-made. The availability of these resources depends on accumulation of physical investment in building construction, purchase of equipment and maintenance of the stock of these assets. It is here that the culture and religion, Islam in particular, may play a role. In order to create physical productive asset, what economists call â€Å"capital†, long process of planning, risk taking, vision and enterprise are required. Arthur Lewis (1955, 105) argued in his textbook on economic growth: â€Å"Some religions are more compatible with economic growth than others. If religion stress upon material value, upon work, upon thrift and productive investment, upon honesty in commercial relations, upon experimentation and risk bearing, and upon equality of opportunity, it will be helpful to growth, whereas in so far as it is hostile to this things, it tends to inhibit growth. † He did not provide the classifications of religion according to their support for development. But other economists like Luigi Guiso, Paola Sapienza, and luigi Zingales did. They conducted a multinational set of surveys that covers sixty-six countries. In a study that appeared in the Journal of Monetary Economics, they noted that, â€Å"on average, Christian religions are more positively associated with attitudes that are conductive to economic growth, while Islam is negatively associated. † In comparison with people of other religion, Muslims were generally less disposed to agree with pro-market statements such as â€Å"Competition is good†, â€Å"private ownership of business an industry should be increased†. It means that Muslims are not willing to adopt industrialization and modernization, without which creation of capital is barely possible. Report clearly indicates that Islam sufficiently discouraging economic development in terms of physical resources. The same opinion had Daniel (19958, 405) who wrote in his best-known work, The Passing of Traditional Society, that â€Å"the top policy problem, for three generations of Middle Eastern leaders, has been whether one must choose between ‘Mecca or Mechanization’ or whether one can make them compatible. He observed that Islam was inimical to the structural changes essential to the Islamic world’s progress. Affirmatively Islam played very effective role in capital creation and obviously negative. So, if country’s aim was to develop, choice would ultimately get resolved in favor of ‘mechanization’. The third factor of production is human resource. This is not jus a matter of population. People need t o be educated and trained in order to make use of the physical capital. Religion may play a role here too – possibly negative one. To the question whether Islam contributed to shaping the educational system that limited curiosity and innovation Lewis (1982, 229) answers in the affirmative. But how? Islam highly encourages education. It might have stemmed from the closure of the gate ‘ijtihad’, which meant end of freedom of innovation, independent judgment, and that all answers were already available and needed merely to follow and obey. Treating Islamic learning as perfection helped support an educational system that emphasized rot learning and memorization at the expense of problem solving. Granting that the prevailing educational system must have limited inquisitiveness and innovation, it could have extinguished new ideas and the desire for change. This resulted in overwhelmingly illiterate Muslim population. The scene has not changed a lot in present days either, series of reports for United Nations pointed out that adult literacy rate barely topped fifty percent, which is disastrous for economic development. If there is no human resource who can tackle technology, machinery what are they needed for anyway? The nature of progress is improvements in physical capital over time that deliver increased output for given amount of material and labor input – higher productivity. By labor meant highly educated and trained people, whom obviously lacks Muslim world. This ‘knowledge deficit’ has severely impeded economic growth. One thing that I cannot skip is the attitude toward women in Islam. In Islam women are inferior to men. Recent figures from the International Labor Organizations, published by world Bank, indicate that in the Middle East and North Africa, women comprise 28 % of the total labor force, whereas the world average is 40 %. As a group, these countries have the lowest female labor force participation in the world. One of the lowest figures is Saudi Arabia with 16%. This is reflection of cultural values regarding women in Muslim countries, values inseparable from religious values, which form following consequences. First, it decreases the overall income of country. If women were engaged in paid employment, increasing the labor force by 30%, additional contribution to national income would be around of 10%. Second, this limitation reduces potential production. Third, it is associated with higher birth in these countries, which correspondingly per capita income growth rate. So, this Islamic wise about women contribute to relative poverty. Now, as we have obtained sufficient image on how Islam has influenced the process of wealth generation I would like to take a quick look at Muslims trading patterns. Islamic Merchants The fact that Muslims ended up to be poor at trading puzzles me because the founder of Islam, The Prophet Muhammad is believed to have been a merchant, and in one occasion he reportedly said, â€Å"The trustworthy merchant will sit I in the shade of Allah’s throne. It is especially puzzling that Muslim merchants, given that early Islamic thought harbor certain pro-competitive traditions, along with Muslim consumers who stood to benefit from greater competition, failed to counter the anti-competitive influence of the guilds. Sabri Ulgener (1981) suggests that trading patterns were influenced by the economic morality as sociated with Islam. The foremost objective of Muslims’ economic doctrine is to replace the individualistic economic morality with a communalist morality. Which means Muslim do not support private ownership and income inequality, which is necessary to provide incentive for individual effort, and it leads to discouraging consequences for merchants. As private property rights were not protected in Islamic countries it is possible that trade with Muslims or in their countries was inefficient, and merchants simply avoided having any deal in Muslim world. Of course this is not the only reason for static trading pattern, there are tons of factors that could affect it. We just see that Islamic morality might have had an impact on merchants. Islamic Law and Economic growth The economist Timur Kuran, who grew up in Turkey and teaches at Duke University, traced the causes of fault in achieving industrialization and stable growth in his well acclaimed book, The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East. Islamic societies were slow to develop banks, commercial courts, joint stock companies, and the business organizations, for which Kuran blames social customs and religious rules, i. . Islamic laws. He focuses on laws covering business partnership and inheritance practices. These, he argues, discouraged the emergence of modern industrial corporations. In medieval times, trading partnership was the leading form of the business in the Middle East. In Islamic partnership any individual partner could end the relationship at will, and even the most successful ventures were terminated on the death of partner. As a result of these rule, most bu sinesses tended to be small and short-lived. By the end of nineteenth century, the most durable trading entities in many Islamic countries were operated by non-Muslims, such as Armenians and Jews, Kuran adds, these organizations too were limited in their ability to raise money from outsiders because the region lacked non-governmental financial channels. And this held back the establishment of corporations which would do huge contributions to economy. The other thing, according to Kuran, which hindered business consolidation is inheritance customs. Quran dictated that if Muslim merchant died at least two-third of his estate had to be split among surviving family members. This egalitarian Islamic law of inheritance discouraged the accumulation of wealth by dividing it among family members. The permissibility of polygamy fueled this problem as it divided the assets of wealthy merchants with multiple wives and children. Further, it prevented the creation of long-lasting, capital-intensive companies. These provocative claims are not backed up by statistical and empirical works, they generally derived basing only on a history. One can argue that claims are just hollow claims as Adeel Malik, professor in University of Oxford, did. But Kuran’s claims are sound and rational. In Western countries for instance giant corporations were vital part of economic engine, which fueled prosperity, and they didn’t have any rules slightly related to those of Islamic. This could mean that Kuran is right with his arguments and Muslims should pay a little attention to them and may be check up their rules and see whether it is compatible with modern economic and financial system. Islamic Banking While investigating Islamic economy, it is impossible to ignore their financial system. Islamic economic doctrine on prohibition against riba, Arabic word which means â€Å"interest† or â€Å"usury†, is widely known. Muslim world convinced that conventional financial system is decadent, immoral and inequitable. However, in modern world, the one who is out of this system is out of economic advancement because financial institutions are the only monetary support for a business investment. Muslims may think that Muslim lenders and borrowers have long found their own ways to circumvent, but some data prove the opposite. First of all Islamic Banks are deficient. These banks exist not in all predominantly Islamic nations. They have constituted only a small share of the national banking system. For instance in thirteen out of fifteen major Islamic countries listed by Henry and Wilson (2004 b:7), Islamic banks accounted for less than 17% of the share of commercial bank deposits in late 1990s, in Algeria, Iraq, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Syria, and Tunisia Islamic banks were nonexistent or minuscule. By the year 2000 only three countries – Iran, Pakistan, and Sudan- had Islamized their banking system. The implication of this information is that Islamic bank appears to be important in only very small number of Muslim countries. Shortage of banks is huge obstacle for new investments and emergence of any industrial businesses. Furthermore, Islamic banks are at a competitive disadvantage before other domestic or foreign bans for three reasons. First, a problem of moral hazard arises. Second, accounts in an Islamic bank must yield a return at least close to that of their competitors in order to attract deposits. Third, these banks are burdened with a curious problem of adverse selection. So, the future of Islamic banking does not seem to be glowing. As we see, the prohibition on interest serves no beneficial purpose. Elaborate scheme to circumvent such transactions because of their supposed immorality or due to their prohibition serve no purpose but except to increase costs and increase inefficiency. Conclusion This paper has reviewed important areas of economic activity and the role of Islam in it. And religion affirmatively has great influence on economy of Islamic world. Basing on all finding I conclude that Islam was inconductive to economic development, or at least less supportive than was Christian dominant countries. Few Muslims appreciated the discoveries and innovation, which has been fatal cause for physical resource or capital. The nature of Islamic education was not helpful in developing open minded citizens fully equipped to fulfill their ambitions and potential. Islamic attitude toward women negatively affects production and income. Very few Muslims were seeking to capitalize, which caused uncomfortable conditions for merchants. The constraints and costs imposed on financial institutions by the nominal prohibition on interest payments preclude a free market in financial capital, causing inefficiencies, moral hazard in banking system, and limiting the funds for investment. These were drawbacks of religion that possibly caused stagnation in Islamic countries. And of course there are ways of getting out of this situation. Recent history provides examples of Muslim countries seeking to engage I the global economy and some of them succeeding. Indonesia, for instance, in 2008 its inflation adjusted GDP per capita was five and half times what it was in 1990, in Malasia during the same period, it rose almost six fold. Just a generation ago, both of these nations were overwhelmingly rural and poverty stricken. Today, they are industrialized middle-income countries. May be some Islamic countries should follow the lead of Turkey, the country which was transformed into an economically vibrant democracy. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, founder of Turkish Republic, in 1929 abolished the caliphate and imposed strict church-state divide. After 1980, Turgut Ozal removed barriers to foreign trade and investment. Party’s Islamic heritage hasn’t prevented it from embracing a policy of economic modernization. Today, Turkey is the world’s fifteenth-largest economy and a member of G-20. Example of Turkey suggests that it is possible to industrialize, modernize and still be faithful to religion, but Islam should not intervene in economic and political activities for its own sake, this will prevent Islam from being changed under the political influence and will maintain its cleanness. So, Islamic countries are not in perfect condition, however they have all opportunities to prosper. This research paper analyzed just some of the factors, further researches and surveys needs to be conducted to identify other possible problems of static economy of Muslim world and to provide empirical and statistical information on Timur Kuran’s arguments. References How to cite Role of Islam in Economic Develpoment, Essay examples

Nursing Australian Community

Question: Discuss about the Nursing for Australian Community. Answer: Nursing in Australia The profession of nursing is vital for the Australian community and incorporates a challenging career. The career of nursing is rewarding as well since the job involves the serving of the sick to make them healthy again. The nurses in Australia work in several health areas that include schools and hospitals in the departments of emergency, oncology, intensive care and pediatrics (Lane et al. 2016, p.6). The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia regulates the nursing profession in the country and classifies the nurses in the categories of assistant in nursing, enrolled nurses, registered nurses and nurse practitioners (Nursingmidwiferyboard.gov.au 2016). There have been arguments about the differences in work between a registered nurse and enrolled nurse and based on this core statement, this assignment will further respond to this statement by the enrolled nurses from the perspectives of a future registered nurse. The implications for patient care of the enrolled or registered nur ses that are not working to their scope of practice will also be discussed. An enrolled nurse (EN) is a pertinent and valued member of the Australian healthcare workforce and they have a retention rate that is higher than the registered nurses (RN). The hierarchy level that the profession of nursing follows in Australia goes from being an EN to become and RN (Jacob, McKenna and D'Amore 2014, p. 208). This raises the debate regarding the work responsibilities of the two different nursing professionals. The EN are expected to work along with the RN that lies within the patient care context for the demonstration of the care delivery process that is person-centered and goes in accordance with the framework of decision making based on competence. Following the hierarchy levels, the EN are required to work under the supervision of the RN, either direct or indirect and they are responsible and accountable for their own actions and providing patient care that is delegated as per the care context. The work of the EN includes the retention of responsibility for their actions and is accountable for providing the delegated care of nursing. The roles of the EN in the hospitals depends on in their area of clinical employment that includes maintenance of the healthcare of the patients by recording, measuring and observing the blood sugar levels, blood pressure levels, respiration, pulse and temperature and report the changes observed to the physicians. They are also responsible for bed making, dressing, showering and bathing for ensuring comfort and hygiene of the patients. They also feed the patients as required and support them during the process of rehabilitation with programs and exercises (Jacob, McKenna and D'Amore 2014, p. 435). Assist the patients on the emergency and first aid situations that help to educate the patients on the lifestyle and health issues. EN helps to minimize the injuries and help in the maintenance of a safe environment. ENs are also responsible for the c are planning process however, they are not allowed to act independently with the overall responsibility (Talbot, Dorrian and Chapman 2015, p. 1055). Re-delegation of the activities to other nursing employees is not possible by the ENs when they accept a delegation. From the legal perspectives, the responsibility and accountability of the scope of practice of the ENs have been set out by the Nursing and Midwifery Board (NMBA) of Australia. According to NMBA, the ENs is allowed to administer medications once they complete the education of medication administration during their career. They should be familiar with the State and Territory Drugs and Poisons Legislation,' the relevant workplace protocols, procedures and policies and the requirements of healthcare service policy prior to administration of the medications by them. On the other side of the argument, the work of the RN can be summed up as a reflection of their educational competence and preparation for practice as they are licensed and registered under the nursing practice acts of Australia. Their higher level of responsibility and accountability are regulated by the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia and their primary responsibility includes the duties of unit manager, team leader, medical administration, management and assessment of the patients requiring complex and specialized nursing care and research activities (Birks et al. 2013, p. 29). They have more autonomy in their responsibilities and practice decisions compared to the other nursing professionals. They ensure the quality of their work with their involvement in the process of the evaluation of the outcomes of the client, competence assistance, supervision and involvement in the process of teaching. From the legal perspectives, the NMBA has designed the national framework of dec ision making that has been developed in association with the context of the strategies of national workforce that promotes responsiveness, flexibility and diversity in the workforce (Evans, Duggan and Boldy 2014, p. 229). The RNs along with the midwives are expected to follow the two set of principles of the national framework for decision making that deals with the evaluation and development of the tools for decision making and the templates for those tools. Considering both the aspects of the argument regarding the work responsibility of both the EN and RN, the core statement made by the EN can be easily refuted by the RNs since the work of an RN requires much more of leadership and administrative in addition to the nursing skills when compared with the exclusive nursing abilities of the EN. In addition, the legal requirements of NMBA also permit a superior working framework for the RNs with the national framework for decision making however, there is no such framework for the ENs to permit them with superiority. Considering the hierarchy levels of nursing, the work of the RN is never similar to that of the EN and autonomous work profile with higher competency standards sets them on a much higher level over the EN (Hegney et al. 2014, pp. 506-507). Apart from the core functionalities of the RN, they are also required to implement reflective and critical thinking skills while contributing to the process of decision making whereas the ENs are only required to follow the commands issued by the RNs and report them accordingly. Since the ENs work under the indirect or direct supervision of the RNs, it is evident that their work profiles are completely different and that of the RN includes more of management and leadership traits. If the RNs and ENs do not work to their scope of practice, it can have severe implications on the health of the community. Even the regulatory standards and codes of the country require the RNs and the ENs to work in coordination to the maximum extent of their scope of practice to maintain the health and well-being of Australia. Considering this argument from the perspectives of the ENs and RNs, they have to be investigated separately to understand the impact of nurses and the consequences of their lack of work to their scope of practice. There is an acute shortage of ENs throughout the world and in Australia, the country is finding it difficult to recruit and retain the experienced and skilled nurses in the private and public sectors. In addition, the shortage of ENs in the country is also due to inadequate and incomplete data that is associated with the greater amounts of extra working hours. Under such a bottleneck situation, if the ENs decide not to work to their scope of practice, the implications can be horrific for the community (Ruth Jacob et al. 2013, pp. 156-157). The quality of care will have an adverse impact which will be followed by serious reduction in the ability of the Australian community to access the entire range of residential aged care and hospital services. The process of patient care will also be compromised under such circumstances. It will be difficult for the RNs as well to distribute the responsibilities and ensure quality patient care without the ENs working to their maximum potential (Lub be and Roets 2014, p. 59). The field of healthcare is undergoing drastic changes with increasing complexities and the need for highly specialized nursing workforce has been in demand. These specialty divisions might not be operating effortlessly with the nurses not cooperating with their complete range of skills and services (Lubbe and Roets 2014, p. 63). There have been changes in the aged care sector as well since the care system has been transferred from being custodial care to a more intensive and complex care. For this, the nurses need to provide both the post-operative and palliative care which is not possible if the ENs do not work to the scope of their practice. The ENs working in the community care services deal with a wide range of patients ranging from drug problems, depression and mental illness to elder and child violence and abuse. This has made the environment of working in the community sector more complex and therefore, a generalist workforce is required who are hig hly skilled (Scanlon et al. 2016, pp. 129-130). Under such circumstances, if the nurses do not work to the scope of their work, the process of care delivery will be extensively hampered and this will be exemplified in the remote and rural areas to the worst. Therefore, NMBA has made it mandatory that the ENs are required to meet its registration standards and they are required to practice to the maximum of their scope within the frameworks of decision making as provided by the RNs. On a similar note, the complications in patient care will continue if the RNs refuse to work to their scope of practice. Patient care delivery is a complex process that requires the professional skills of an RN for problem solving, teamwork, communication and problem recognition. If the RNs do not work to their maximum potential, it will be difficult to implicate the operations efficiently and mange the changing stressors effectively (Cowen and Moorhead 2014). RNs are rarely involved in direct patient care activities however, they instruct the ENs who are directly involved in the patient care activities. If the RNs do not act accordingly, it will affect the services of the EN as well which will eventually risk the patient care and safety. The hospitals will face the critical stressor which will increase the labor and operating costs, decrease the effectiveness and efficiency of provided care and quantity of patient care (Brewer et al. 2012, p. 522). This will also hamper the teamwork and effective communication between the nursing and other professionals which will lead to the development of a poor management and administrative team. They might not be aware of the stressors encountered by the ENs during their bedside shifts and they might not take effective steps to reduce them and make the work easy for their subordinates. This might, in turn, reduce the quality of patient care delivered by the ENs for which the RNs are responsible who are not working to their scope of practice. The NMBA has laid down several professional standards in the form of 'code of ethics' and the 'professional conduct' for the RNs and they are required to strictly adhere to the existing legal requirements so that they do not work less than their scope of practice. With the changes in the methods of hospital care, the average length of stay has declined and the arrival of newer medical technologies has increased the requirement of care by the patients during their stay in the hospital ( Parahoo 2014). Under such circumstances, if the RNs decide not to work to their fullest capacity, the overall concentration of sick people in the hospital will increase exponentially. Due to this negative approach towards their work by the RNs, the ENs will also get de-motivated and eventually the quality of patient will decrease radically (Flinkman, Isopahkala-Bouret and Salanter 2013). Lower the extent of work to the scope of practice by the RN, higher is the rate of adverse outcomes which can, in turn, aggravate some of the medical conditions like upper gastrointestinal bleeding, shock, pneumonia and urinary tract infections causing longer hospital stay. On a concluding note, it can be stated that provision of safe and patient-centered care requires a clear articulation of the scope of practice for the ENs and the RNs and it is also essential that both the category of nurses work in harmony towards achieving their common goal. The job of nursing is professionally and personally rewarding as they represent the patient needs as they serve a wide range of health problems, injuries and illness. For intrinsic and extrinsic care plan of the patients in the hospital, working of the RNs and ENs in their respective domains and within their scope of practice is mandatory as stated by NMBA. References Birks, M., Cant, R., James, A., Chung, C. Davis, J., 2013. The use of physical assessment skills by registered nurses in Australia: Issues for nursing education.Collegian,20(1), pp.27-33. Brewer, C.S., Kovner, C.T., Greene, W., Tukov?Shuser, M. Djukic, M., 2012. Predictors of actual turnover in a national sample of newly licensed registered nurses employed in hospitals.Journal of advanced nursing,68(3), pp.521-538. Cowen, P.S. Moorhead, S., 2014.Current issues in nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences, Missouri. Evans, G., Duggan, R. Boldy, D., 2014. An exploration of nursing research perceptions of registered nurses engaging in research activities at a metropolitan hospital in Western Australia.Collegian,21(3), pp.225-232. Flinkman, M., Isopahkala-Bouret, U. Salanter, S., 2013. Young registered nurses' intention to leave the profession and professional turnover in early career: a qualitative case study.ISRN nursing,2013. Hegney, D.G., Craigie, M., Hemsworth, D., Osseiran?Moisson, R., Aoun, S., Francis, K. Drury, V., 2014. Compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, anxiety, depression and stress in registered nurses in Australia: study 1 results.Journal of nursing management,22(4), pp.506-518. Jacob, E.R., McKenna, L. DAmore, A., 2014. Similarities and differences in educational preparation of registered and enrolled nurses in Australia: An examination of curricula content.Contemporary nurse,48(2), pp.199-211. Lane, R., Halcomb, E., McKenna, L., Zwar, N., Naccarella, L., Davies, G. P., Russell, G. (2016). Advancing general practice nursing in Australia: roles and responsibilities of primary healthcare organisations.Australian Health Review. Lubbe, J.C. Roets, L., 2014. Nurses scope of practice and the implication for quality nursing care.Journal of Nursing Scholarship,46(1), pp.58-64. Nursingmidwiferyboard.gov.au. 2016.Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia - Home. [online] Available at: https://www.nursingmidwiferyboard.gov.au/ [Accessed 28 Dec. 2016]. Parahoo, K., 2014.Nursing research: principles, process and issues. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. Ruth Jacob, E., Barnett, A., Sellick, K. McKenna, L., 2013. Scope of practice for Australian enrolled nurses: Evolution and practice issues.Contemporary nurse,45(2), pp.155-163. Scanlon, A., Cashin, A., Bryce, J., Kelly, J.G. Buckely, T., 2016. The complexities of defining nurse practitioner scope of practice in the Australian context.Collegian,23(1), pp.129-142. Talbot, A.L., Dorrian, J. Chapman, J., 2015. Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour to examine enrolled nursing students' intention to care for patients with alcohol dependence: A survey study.Nurse education today,35(11), pp.1054-1061.

Rent the adaptation of the broadway musical to feature film

Introduction This case study focuses on â€Å"Rent† a musical production that first opened in Broadway in 1994. Jonathan Larson wrote and composed this musical. The musical is based on the Bohemian Ideals and is loosely based on La Puccini’s â€Å"La Boheme† (Puccini 1). The show was first shown in a limited three-week period at the New York Theatre.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Rent the adaptation of the broadway musical to feature film specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It then ran until 1996. The show was a success managing to garner a Pulitzer Prize and eventually moving to a much larger Broadway theatre in Nederlander. The show also won a Tony award among many other awards in the course of its production. Financially, â€Å"Rent† was a success grossing over two hundred and eighty million dollars in Broadway earnings. By the time the show closed in 2008 after running for twel ve years, it had already been staged over five thousand times. It was also the longest running Broadway show at the time (Bennett 45). The show enjoyed successful tours both in the United States and around the world. Some of these tours include the â€Å"Angel† tour and the â€Å"Benny tour.† Around the world, there have been tours in Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Australia. The show has also been adopted in over thirty-two countries around the world. It has also been performed in twenty-four languages. The show has enjoyed positive reviews throughout it run. It was praised for its audience friendly scripting and the performance of some of its cast members like Neil Patrick Harris. Eventually, the show was adapted into a film in 2005. Some of the original cast members were featured in this film. The plot of the show is linear, with the action arranged into two acts. The first Act introduces the main character Mark and his friends. This Act chronicles each cha racter’s afflictions and problems. There are those who are battling AIDS, those who are seeking love, those who are battling to maintain their relationships, and those who are battling with financial insecurities. There is also Benny who is seeking to achieve his goals by subjecting his friends to suffering. This act is centered on a demonstration that is planned to prevent Benny from developing a cyber studio in the lot next to Mark’s apartment. This Act reveals each character’s fears, trials and tribulations. The second act opens with Mark and Roger having been locked out of the apartment. They are gathering a crowd around the apartment to help with the break-in. In the course of this Act, several relationships are severed, and Angel dies. The act ends with Mimi being very sick. At this state of near death, she struggles to confess her love for Mark. Then, they all gather to rejoice for the little time they have lived with each other.Advertising Looking f or case study on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The story is centered on Mark, a filmmaker, together with his group of friends: Roger, a rocker, and his roommate, who is suffering from AIDS. He was once a successful musician and had a drug addiction problem. There is Mimi an exotic dancer who is also suffering from AIDS and is Roger’s love interest. She lives in an apartment below them and is a drug addict. Mark and Roger lived in an apartment complex that is now owned by their former roommate Benjamin â€Å"Benny† Coffin. Benny was able to purchase their building and the lot next to it after marrying a wealthy girl. Although he had promised to let Mark and Roger live in his building rent free, he still goes back on his word and starts demanding rent from them. He now seeks to develop a cyber studio in the area occupied by the lot. Many people oppose this development led by Maureen Johnson, a lesbian, who used to be Mark’s girlfriend, and Joanne Jefferson, a public interest lawyer, and Maureen’s, current girlfriend. Tom Collins used to live in this apartment before moving in with Angel. He is a gay anarchist and a teacher. Mark describes him as a computer genius. Angel is a drag queen and a street percussionist who has AIDS. Angel is Mark’s love interest and eventually succumbs to AIDS. This musical’s performance touches on the themes of love, loss and betrayal (Rapp 19). Several characters have romantic feelings towards each other. The main character Mark used to date Maureen who has, in turn, become Joanne’s lover. The strongest love is, however, exemplified by Roger and Mimi. Initially, Roger is reluctant to get romantically involved with Mimi. Near the end of the movie, he sings a very romantic song titled â€Å"your eyes† which is partially responsible for Mimi’s revival (Larson 1). Love, in this case, is closely connected to loss. Mark lost his love for Maureen and, since then, he has not found love in another woman. Collin loses his love interest to AIDS and struggles to overcome his loss. Roger’s former girlfriend committed suicide when she found out she had AIDS. Betrayal is the other theme in this performance. Several characters feel betrayed by their bodies for contracting AIDS. In addition, Benny betrays his friends and former acquaintances.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Rent the adaptation of the broadway musical to feature film specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This production appeals mostly to young people. This is because they are more likely to relate to the issues of love, sex, and same sex relationships. The story chronicles the struggles of young people. These include struggles with their careers, their parents constant meddling, their sexuality, drug addiction, or even newfound status. The older people m ay also be appealed to by this musical because it opens their eyes to the struggles of the young people. The writer of this musical set it in his own town of residence, New York. Several of the addressed issues were situations the writer encountered on a day-to-day basis. During the time, the town was grappling with the AIDS epidemic that was cutting short the life of many young men and women at the time. The debate on same sex marriages was also in high gear during this time. This is probably why the writer of the musical chose to represent those in same sex relationships in a positive light. â€Å"Rent† is a highly charged and emotional performance that uses music and artistic performance to communicate to its audience. This case study focuses on effects of â€Å"political modernism† when adapting the musical into a film. The case study aims at investigating how modernism affects adaptation of the musical into a film through revisions, rewritings, change in musical p erformances, costumes, surfacing of themes among others (Baker 34). For this reason, the original â€Å"Rent† performance will be compared and contrasted with the 2005 film with the same name. Areas of Analysis: Rewritings One of the rewritings in the film is occasioned by the addition of an engagement scene in the film version. Joanne’s parents host this engagement. This change is most likely in line with modernism. During the time the original musical was first performed, the issue of same sex marriages was frowned upon. By the time the film premiered in 2005, this stance had already softened. This makes this scene more palatable to the audience at this time. Musical Performances The number of musical performances in the Braodway’s original performance is less than that which is in the film. In some instances, these songs are turned into dialogue. The director of the film cites some of the reasons for cutting out the songs as lack of pacing and some songs bear ing unnecessary emotional burden.Advertising Looking for case study on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More After television audiences have been exposed to constant emotional distress, there is a need for more entertainment content in films than was needed a decade ago. The songs that were cut include â€Å"Christmas Bells,† â€Å"We Are Okay†andâ€Å"Happy New Year.† All these songs are modern day television clichà ©s. In line with artistic political modernism, they would not appeal to the latter audiences as they used to (Levenson 24). Conveyance of Themes The death of Roger’s girlfriend in the musical is shown as suicide. She did so when she found out that she had AIDS as stated in her suicide note. In the film version, she is only seen reading a doctor’s note. The reason for this discrepancy may be that, back then, contracting AIDS was practically a death sentence. This has, however, changed over time. In addition, it is considered more politically correct today to give hope to those affected as opposed to agreeing with their desolation. Conclusion The transition of â€Å"Rent† from a musical to a film was a smooth one with no major discrepancies. However, a closer investigation reveals the effects of modernism in this translation. Several details were altered during this adaptation in line with political modernism (Zatlin 49). While the central theme remains the same, several other minor details of the original film have lost significance over time. Works Cited Baker, Houston. Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Print. Bennett, Susan. Theatre audiences: A theory of production and reception, New York, NY: Routledge, 1997. Print. Larson, Jonathan. Rent the Musical-Lyrics. 1996. Web. https://www.allmusicals.com/r/rent.htm. Levenson, Michael. The Cambridge Companion to Modernism, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print. Puccini, Giacomo. La bohà ¨me —Libretto in English. n.d. Web. Rapp, Anthony. Without You: A Memoir of Love, Loss, and the Musical Rent , New York, NY: Simon Schuster, 2006. Print. Zatlin, Phyllis. Theatrical Translation And Film Adaptation: A Practitioner’s View, London: Multilingual Matters, 2005. Print. This case study on Rent the adaptation of the broadway musical to feature film was written and submitted by user Ahmad Mann to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Road Warrior Essay Example

Road Warrior Essay Example Road Warrior Paper Road Warrior Paper Morons in Miami (and Other Cities and Countries, but Mostly Miami): Analysis of Dave Barry’s â€Å"Road Warrior† While driving on any road in America, and perhaps any other road on earth, motorists are not calm, not cool, not collected. They disobey the rules of the road by driving slowly in the left-hand lane; they disobey the rules of the road by trailing in extremely close vicinity behind the drivers ahead of them (so close that their front bumper occasionally collides with the alleged normal driver’s rear). Oblivious â€Å"MORONS† (76) would be a well-deserved name for these people according to Dave Barry and the â€Å"opinion-makers in the news media† (75). In the essay â€Å"Road Warrior,† Barry intertwines the use of a humorous and sarcastic tone as well as exaggeration to construct his argument that rage is an unnecessary, yet common, issue on the roads (in Miami) and beyond. Barry’s comical and satirical tone indicates the absurdity of the anger and hostility felt while traveling the highways. Beginning with a completely bizarre statement, Dave Barry writes: â€Å"If you do much driving on our nation’s highways, you’ve probably noticed that, more and more often, bullets are coming through your windshield† (75). Unless on an on an episode of Cops, Barry’s statement is truly fabricated. He explains that this effect of Road Rage is caused mainly by â€Å"the realization that many†¦motorists have the same brain structure as a cashew† (76). Seeming irrational, Barry reveals that even the National Institute of Traffic Safety believes that most motorists are MORONS. To continue his sardonic attitude, Dave Barry declares that these MORONS â€Å"drive in the left-hand†¦lane, even though they are going slower than everybody else† (76). In Barry’s mind, there is a possibility that â€Å"[these moronic drivers] belong to some kind of religious cult that believes the right lane is sacred and must never come in direct contact with tires,† or there is another possibility that at one point, while driving in the left lane, â€Å"their favorite song came on the radio;† since then â€Å"they’ve driven over there†¦in hopes that the radio will play that song again† (76). Barry’s rib-tickling thoughts of Road Rage transform into sidesplitting views of Shopping Cart Rage and Way Too Many Product Choices Rage. He clarifies that Shopping Cart Rage is generated by â€Å"the same people who always drive [slowly] in the left-hand lane† (77). These people accidentally place their cart in such a way that it â€Å"[blocks] the entire aisle† (77). Yet again, Barry utilizes his ysterical tone and jokes that â€Å"if [the government] really wants to keep illegal immigrants from entering the United States, [they] should employ Miami residents armed with shopping carts†¦to block the Mexican border† (77). Way Too Many Product Choices Rage adds to the congestion in supermarkets. Barry personally knows that this rage results from the fact that â€Å"every product†¦comes in an insane number of styles and sizes† (77). He highlights a recent situation in which he needed Tropicana Orange Juice: I had to decide whether I wanted Original, HomeStyle, Pulp Plus, Double Vitamin C, Grovestand, Calcium, or Old-Fashioned; I also had to decide whether I wanted the 16-ounce, 32-ounce, 64-ounce, 96-ounce, or six-pack size†¦I would have called Tropicana and complained, but I probably would have wound up experiencing Automated Phone Answering System Rage (â€Å"†¦For questions about Pulp Plus in the 32-ounce size, press 23. For questions about Pulp Plus in the 64-ounce size, press 24. For questions about†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) (77). Here, Dave Barry demonstrates how too many choices can easily lead to anger. When all the heart desires is a container of Tropicana Orange Juice and thirty-five choices exist, all different styles and amounts, the heart becomes confused. In the end, confusion leads to frustration and Way Too Many Product Choices Rage. Barry hints that in the supermarket, Way Too Many Product Choices Rage is a serious problem: â€Å"If you do much† shopping in today’s supermarkets, â€Å"you’ve probably noticed that, more and more often,† hazardously thrown cereal boxes are flying through the air (75). These boxes are thrown by MORONS (the same people who perfectly position their shopping carts to block the entire aisle). Still remaining sarcastic and witty, Barry adds in a little exaggeration. He first labels himself as one of the few â€Å"Miami drivers who actually† uses the passing lane correctly (76). Barry writes mockingly that while wandering the highways he â€Å"[finds himself] constantly†¦trapped behind people drifting along on the interstate at the speed of diseased livestock, while at the same time [he is] being tailgated and occasionally bumped from behind by† unstable adolescents and their sound systems (76). Other drivers are too busy â€Å"[holding] family reunions, [barbequing] pigs, [and playing] volleyball† to notice their slow speed (76). His replica rage begins to surface when Barry complains that â€Å"nobody EVER signals or yields, and people are CONSTANTLY cutting [others] off† (77). Creating a unique hyperbole, his capitalization illustrates the rage felt by many drivers on the highway and in parking lots. While searching for a spot to park, drivers usually â€Å"see people get into their car, clearly ready to leave, so [they] stop [their] car and wait for [the person] to vacate the spot, and†¦nothing happens! (77) At this point, Dave Barry describes extreme Parking Lot Rage as the point when the waiting driver shrieks: â€Å"WHAT THE HELL ARE THEY DOING IN THERE!! COOKING DINNER † (77) The capital letters and repeated punctuation create a successful overemphasis of Parking Lot Rage. The so-called normal (not insane) response to a dilemma similar to t his would almost certainly consist of nothing but the question: What’s taking so long? Dave Barry effectively proves that road rage is avoidable, while still confirming its inevitability. While pulling into their driveways, motorists are calm, cool, collected. They become relieved to be off the dangerous roads where MORONS tailgate while idiots drive too slowly. Dave Barry pointed out in his essay that â€Å"there are many causes for rage in [the] modern world† (77). He makes one last witty and contradictory statement by explaining how all drivers need to â€Å"avoid unnecessary violence† in order to â€Å"keep [their] cool† (77). And what if they don’t listen? â€Å"[He] will kill [them]† (77).

Visions and Visits

Visions and Visits Visions and Visits Visions and Visits By Mark Nichol Vision and visit both pertain to seeing something, and that’s no coincidence, because they are cognates, both stemming from the Latin verb videre, meaning â€Å"see.† A discussion of the words, their variations, and some related terms follows. The word vision describes the literal ability to see and the figurative sense of something conjured by the imagination as if it is seen or even merely contemplated (the original connotation), as well as the act or power of seeing or imagination. In addition, the word refers to the quality of discernment or foresight, a sense that arose only about a century ago. A vision is also something seen, including a particularly charming or lovely person, place, or thing. Little-used adjectival and adverbial forms are visional and visionally. Someone with discernment or foresight is called a visionary. Other words in the vision family include envision, a verb meaning â€Å"picture.† Something that can be seen is visible (the adverbial form is visibly), and the quality of being able to be seen, whether on a practical level or in the sense of celebrity, is visibility; the antonym is invisibility. The adjective visual refers to the faculty or process of sight, and the adverbial form is visually. Visualize is the verb form, and something visualized is a visualization. (The British English spellings are visualise and visualisation.) Something that does not involve sight is nonvisual. Related compounds are television (a compound of the Greek word tele, meaning â€Å"far off,† and vision), audiovisual (an adjective referring to technology that enables sight and sound), and proper nouns such as VistaVision, the brand name of an obsolete form of wide-screen cinematography. Several words referring to the face include the syllable vis, which stems from videre and refers to one’s appearance or face, including visage, a noun that is a synonym for â€Å"face,† and visor, originally a reference to the part of a helmet covering the entire head that protects the eyes (and later to an eyeshade). Envisage is a synonym for envision. (A related term is the adopted French term visvis, meaning â€Å"face to face,† which in English is a preposition meaning â€Å"face to face with† or â€Å"in relation to† or â€Å"compared with.† Less commonly, it is a noun referring to a counterpart or a person one is on a date with, or an intimate conversation, as well as an adverb meaning â€Å"together.†) Visit began as a verb describing someone attending on another to benefit or comfort and later came to refer to one or more people paying a call to one or more others, as well as the sense of afflicting or coming on to (as in the biblical verse â€Å"The sins of the fathers are visited on the sons†). Later, it became a noun describing the instance of paying a call. One who visits is a visitor (the term, for example, refers to members of a sports team coming from somewhere else to compete with the home team), and a visitation is an instance of an official visit (or is an adjective referring to such a visit). Visit, visitor, and visitation also have a connotation of an examination or inspection of a place of religion. To revisit is to consider something a second time; it is generally not used to mean literally â€Å"visit again.† The verb advise and the noun advice, referring to recommendations given, ultimately derive from videre by way of the Old French term avis, meaning â€Å"idea,† â€Å"judgment,† or â€Å"view.† Advisory is the adjectival form as well as a noun referring to a report that gives advice or suggests a course of action. (Despite that spelling, adviser is favored over advisor to describe someone who does so.) To supervise is literally to look over, to manage or monitor an area or a procedure; the act of doing so is supervision and the actor is a supervisor, and the adjectival form is supervisory. Meanwhile, revise means â€Å"look again† and refers to changing something- generally, something written- that one (or someone else) has produced; the adjective is revised, and the noun for the act is revision. (There is no direct actor noun, although one might be referred to as a reviewer.) To improvise is to do something unprepared or to make something using available resources; the act is improvisation. Words from other languages that stem from videre include visa, from the Modern Latin phrase charta visa, which literally means â€Å"paper that has been seen† and refers to a document or to a sticker or stamp in a passport that confirms authorization to visit a foreign country, and vista, from the Italian word for â€Å"sight† or â€Å"view,† which refers to a prospect or a view of a landscape or seascape. A subsequent post will discuss words stemming from videre that do not include the element vis. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:12 Greek Words You Should Know8 Proofreading Tips And TechniquesThe Difference Between "Shade" and "Shadow"

Should fighting be banned from hockey Explain your reasoning Essay

Should fighting be banned from hockey Explain your reasoning - Essay Example Recently NHL has been banning fights, but as said earlier, the fights remain to be a main attraction in hockey games. While the NHL does not necessarily approve of the violence in the game, there are some unwritten rules in hockey and most of them have something to do with fighting. On the other side of the coin there are also written rules when playing hockey, and some of it are (McNaughton 1): 1) not being the third man in; 2) not leaving the bench to join the fight and 3) dropping of gloves and stick if someone intends to enter into an altercation. There are definitely penalties for getting into fights like being ejected or suspended; and all players must adhere to the rules or they are subjected to additional penalties which are generally known as misconducts. Another article claims that hockey fighting should not be banned in the game because hockey is a physical sport and things are expected to get rough now and again. But nobody likes to see a player get seriously hurt during or after a brawl (Ruth 1). Revising the rule calls for imposing correct restrictions that if a player gets out of line or intentionally hurts another player, then â€Å"he must be put in his proper place.† John Buccigross says he finds it hard to believe that hockey fans merely go to the games and watch it because of the expected fights, which if they do happen is usually short lived (1). He goes on to suggest that to avoid head and face injuries, hockey players should wear full facial protective gears. Buccigross also pointed out that enforcers within the games are needed to protect the star players who play in order to win the game. He likewise states that even if the NHL bans fighting in the games, there would still be fights due to the tensions and expectation of the players. Rick Sadowski of Rocky Mountain News similarly commented that there will always be fighting in hockey games even if the league officials impose sanctions like automatic

Business Ethics on Software Piracy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Ethics on Software Piracy - Essay Example Piracy is very difficult to stop, and software companies are at a loss as to how to stop major offenders. Although new measures are continually being tested, so far these have proven either cumbersome to paying clients or ineffective altogether. According to Mitchell (2003), "the illegal copying of software is considered by some international business experts to provide an interesting glimpse into the overall maturity of the business ethics of a region" (p.136). Historically, this inference holds true particularly in relation to the socio-economic development of a region. While locations such as Vietnam and China had a near-frivolous 100% piracy rate, in North America it was a much more acceptable 25%. Given these facts, it is illustrated that the better developed a country, the less prone it would be to software piracy. Perhaps it may be connected to the fact that the protected delivery of technology is so easily sidetracked that so many people are tempted to get a free copy. After all, who would say no to a freebie right In today's rapidly changing information highway, software is so readily accessible that anyone can do it. A few clicks on Google and one would be on his merry way. For the heavier protected software from the bigger companies, a more tech-savvy individual could source out illicit versions from numerous hacker websites which have proliferated the Internet. Actually some computer software companies have given up on curtailing piracy and instead utilize a concept called "shareware", where software is distributed for free but consumers are enjoined to make a small "donation" in good faith. As more and more users are switching to these free downloads, the situation is slowly becoming a serious business ethics issue that is both awkward and tricky to address. Existing piracy laws are lackadaisical at best, and only target users on a large scale. But for the small business, the prospect of saving a couple thousand dollars for relevant office software is quite appealing. - more so if the likelihood of getting caught is next to nil. Given the relative ease that one can download illicit software online, the morality and ethics of the matter comes into the forefront. Armed with the fact that some full-scale business in such countries such as the Philippines and Vietnam run completely on pirated software (Mitchell, 152), how does one exactly regulate this when officials in these countries turn a blind eye, and piracy is slowly becoming an accepted part of the culture Perhaps these Southeast Asian countries should follow the lead of the United States, who has been at the short end of the stick of the entire piracy industry. As mentioned earlier, the country has the lowest piracy rate and yet is the hardest hit. Is this short of saying that the level of business ethics and compliance is miles away compared to developing countries Can it be argued that what we are seeing is an illustration of stringent ethics being practiced as a whole from a cultural perspective, and that other locales simply lag behind and do not give much importance to it In the U.S., an April 2001 survey showed that 82 percent of corporations monitored employee communication, 82 percent had a formal written policy on email usage and 77 percent had one on Internet use ( Mitchell, 137). These same companies cite legal liability as the top reason, but recognized that banning personal

History of Football Essay Example for Free

History of Football Essay Football, American, distinct type of football that developed in the United States in the 19th century from soccer (association football) and rugby football. Played by professionals and amateurs (generally male college or high school teams), football is one of the most popular American sports, attracting thousands of participants and millions of spectators annually. The forerunner of American football may have been a game played by the ancient Greeks, called harpaston. In this game there was no limit to the number of players. The object was to move a ball across a goal line by kicking, throwing, or running with it. Classical literature contains detailed accounts of the game, including its rougher elements, such as ferocious tackling. Most modern versions of football, however, originated in England, where a form of the game was known in the 12th century. In subsequent centuries football became so popular that various English monarchs, including Edward II and Henry VI, forbade the game because it took interest away from the military sport of archery. By the middle of the 19th century football had split into two distinct entities. Still popular today, these two sports included the football association game, or soccer (the word being a slang adaptation of the three letters, s-o-c, in Association), and rugby, in which players ran with the ball and tackled. Modern football evolved out of these two sports. The Playing Field and the Ball The football playing field is rectangular in shape, measuring 100 yd (91. 4 m) long and 53. 5 yd (48. 9 m) wide. At both ends of the 100-yard dimension, white lines called goal lines mark off the entrances to the end zones. Each team defends one end zone. A team must carry, pass, or kick the ball into the 10-yd (9-m) end zone on the opponents half of the field to score. Lines parallel to the end zones cross the field at 5-yd (4. 5-m) intervals. These lines give the field a resemblance to a large gridiron. Another set of lines, known as the sidelines, runs along both sides of the field. In addition, two rows of lines, called hash marks, run parallel to the sidelines. The hash marks are 53 ft 4 in (16. 3 m) from each sideline in college and high school football, and 70 ft 9 in (21. 6 m) from each sideline in the National Football League (NFL). Each play must begin on or between the hash marks. Before each play, the officials place the ball either between the hash marks or on the hash mark closest to the end of the previous play. Situated in the middle of the rear line of each end zone are goalposts, consisting of a 10-ft (3-m) vertical pole topped by a horizontal crossbar from which two vertical upright posts extend. In college and professional football, the posts are 18 ft 6 in (about 5. 6 m) apart. The football consists of an inflated rubber bladder encased in a leather or rubber cover. The ball is an extended spheroid, having a circumference of 28. 5 in (72. 4 cm) around the long axis and 21. 25 in (54 cm) around the short axis. It weighs between 14 and 15 oz (397 and 425 g). Playing Time A game of football is divided into four periods, known as quarters, each consisting of 15 minutes of playing time. The first two periods constitute the first half; the second two comprise the second half. Between the halves, a rest period, usually lasting about 15 minutes, is permitted the players, who may leave the field. The teams change halves of the field at the end of each quarter. The clocks stop at the end of each quarter and at certain other times, when particular events occur or when designated by the officials. The Players Football is played by two opposing teams, each fielding 11 players. Each team tries to move the ball down the field to score in the end zone defended by its opponents. During a football game the teams are designated as the offensive team (the team in possession of the ball) and the defensive team (the team defending a goal line against the offensive team). Players involved in kicking situations are known as the special teams. The 11 players of the offensive team are divided into two groups: 7 linemen, who play on the line of scrimmage (an imaginary line designating the position of the ball) and a backfield of 4 players, called backs, who stand in various positions behind the linemen. The lineman whose position is in the middle of the line is called the center. On his left is the left guard and on his right is the right guard. On the left of the left guard is the left tackle, and on the right of the right guard is the right tackle; similarly, on the ends of the line are the tight end and the split end. The back who usually  stands directly behind the center and directs the play of the offensive team is known as the quarterback. In a balanced backfield formation, or â€Å"T-formation,† the fullback stands behind the quarterback, and the left and right halfbacks stand to either side of the fullback. Teams often use wide receivers in the place of tight ends, split ends, halfbacks, or fullbacks. Wide receivers line up on the line of scrimmage but wide of the rest of the formation. The defensive team consists of a row of linemen, who comprise the defensive line, a row of linebackers, and a collection of defensive backs, known as the secondary. The defensive line can use any number of players, though most teams use three or four linemen. Defensive linemen principally are responsible for stopping the oppositions rushing attack and, in passing situations, putting pressure on the quarterback. The linebackers line up behind the defensive line and, depending on the situation, are used to stop runners, pressure the quarterback, or cover the oppositions receivers. Teams usually employ three or four linebackers. The secondary is comprised of cornerbacks, who cover wide receivers, and safeties, who cover receivers, offer support in stopping the rushing attack, and pressure the quarterback. The secondary commonly consists of two cornerbacks and two safeties. Protective Equipment To protect themselves from the often violent bodily contact that characterizes football, players wear elaborate equipment, including lightweight plasticized padding covering the thighs, hips, shoulders, knees, and often the forearms and hands. Players also wear plastic helmets with guards that cover most of the face. The Officials Play is supervised by impartial officials. Professional and major college football programs use seven officials: a referee, an umpire, a linesman, a field judge, a back judge, a line judge, and a side judge. The officials carry whistles and yellow penalty flags. They blow the whistles or throw the flags to indicate that an infraction of the rules has been committed. The referee is in charge of the game at all levels of play. The referee supervises the other officials, decides on all matters not under other officials specific jurisdiction, and enforces penalties. The referee indicates when the ball is dead (out of play) and when it may again be put into play, and uses hand signals to indicate specific decisions and penalties. The umpire makes decisions on questions concerning the players equipment, their conduct, and their positioning. The principal duty of the linesman is to mark the position of the ball at the end of each play. The linesman has assistants who measure distances gained or lost, using a device consisting of two vertical markers connected by a chain or cord 10 yd (9 m) long. The linesman must particularly watch for violations of the rule requiring players to remain in certain positions before the ball is put into play. The field judge times the game, using a stopwatch for this purpose. In some cases, the stadium scoreboard has a clock that is considered official. Game Procedure At the beginning of each game, the referee tosses a coin in the presence of the two team captains to determine which team kicks off or receives the kickoff. At the start of the second half, these conditions are reversed—that is, the team that kicks off in the first half receives the kickoff to start the second half. During the kickoff, the ball is put in play by a place-kick from the kicking teams 35-yd (32-m) line, or the 30-yd (27. 4-m) line in the National Football League (NFL). The NFL kickoff was moved from the 35-yd line in 1994 to increase the importance of the kickoff return. The kicking team lines up at or behind the ball, while the opponents spread out over their territory in a formation calculated to help them to catch the ball and run it back effectively. If the kick stays within the boundaries of the field, any player on the receiving team may catch the ball, or pick it up on a bounce, and run with it. As the player runs, the player may be tackled by any opponent and stopped, known as being downed. The player carrying the ball is considered downed when one knee touches the ground. Tacklers use their hands and arms to stop opponents and throw them to the ground. After the ball carrier is stopped, the referee blows a whistle to stop play and places the ball on the spot where the runner was downed. Play also stops when the ball carrier runs out of bounds. A scrimmage (action while the ball is in play) then takes place. Before scrimmage begins, the team on offense usually gathers in a circle, called a huddle, and discusses the next play it will use to try to advance the ball. A coach either signals the play choice  to the team from the sidelines, or the teams quarterback chooses from among the dozens of rehearsed plays in the teams repertoire. The defensive team also forms a huddle and discusses its next attempt to slow the offense. Each play is designated by code numbers or words, called signals. After the teams come out of their respective huddles, they line up opposite each other on the line of scrimmage. If the quarterback analyzes the defensive alignment and decides that the chosen play should be changed, the quarterback can call an audible and shout the coded directions for a new play. Play begins when the center crouches over the ball and, on a spoken signal, snaps it—generally to the quarterback—by handing it between his legs. Based upon the chosen play, the quarterback can pass the ball, hand it off to a teammate, or run with it. During the scrimmage, the players on the offensive team may check the defenders using their bodies, but they are constrained by specific rules regarding the use of their hands or arms. The player running with the ball, however, is allowed to use an arm to ward off potential tacklers. The offensive players check defenders, or try to force them out of the way, by performing a maneuver known as blocking. Good blocking is considered a fundamental technique in football. Perhaps the most spectacular offensive play is the forward pass, in which the ball is thrown in a forward direction to an eligible player. The ball is nearly always thrown by the quarterback, and those who may catch it include the other three backs and the two ends. A forward pass may be made only during scrimmage, and then only from behind the line of scrimmage. A lateral pass may be made anywhere on the field anytime the ball is in play. The defending team tries to prevent the attacking team from advancing the ball. The defending players may use their arms and hands in their attempt to break through the opponents line to reach the player with the ball. The defending team tries to keep the offense from gaining any distance, or to stop the offense for a loss by tackling the ball carrier before the ball carrier reaches the line of scrimmage. The offense must advance the ball at least 10 yards (9 m) in four tries, called downs. After each play, the teams line up again and a new scrimmage takes place. If the team on offense fails to travel 10 yards (9 m) in four downs, it must surrender the ball to its opponent after the fourth down. A team will often punt on fourth down if it hasnt gained at least 10 yards (9 m) in its previous three tries. In punting, the kicker drops the ball and kicks it before it touches the ground. By punting, a team can send the ball farther away from its own end zone before surrendering it, thus weakening the opponents field position. Methods of Scoring. The object of the game is to score more points than the opposing team within the regulation playing time. In college football, a game can end in a tie if both teams have scored the same number of points at the end of regulation time. In case of a tie in an exhibition or regular-season professional game, the teams play an overtime period, known as sudden death, in which the first team to score is declared the winner. If neither team has scored at the end of this 15-minute overtime period, then the tie is allowed to stand. In professional playoff games no ties are allowed, and the teams play until one scores. A team scores a touchdown when one of its players carries the ball into the opposing teams end zone or catches a pass in the end zone. A touchdown is worth 6 points. After a team has scored a touchdown, it tries for an extra-point conversion. This is an opportunity to score an additional one or two points with no time elapsing off the game clock. In college football, the offensive team lines up 3 yd (2. 7 m) from the goal line of the opponents and passes, kicks, or runs with the ball. A running or passing conversion in which the ball crosses the goal line counts for 2 points. A conversion by place-kick that propels the ball between the goalposts and over the crossbar counts for 1 point. In professional football, the offensive team lines up 2 yd (1. 8 m) from the goal line. A conversion attempted by place-kicking the ball is worth 1 point. In 1994 the NFL introduced the running or passing 2-point conversion. On offense, teams may also attempt to score by kicking a field goal, which counts for 3 points. A field goal is scored by means of a place-kick, in which one player holds the ball upright on the ground for a teammate to kick. For a successful field goal, the ball must be kicked between the goalposts and over the crossbar. After each field goal and extra-point conversion, the scoring team must kick off to its opponents. Finally, a defensive team earns two points for a safety when it causes the team on offense to end a play in possession of the ball behind its own goal line. If the offensive team downs the ball behind its line intentionally, in certain situations, such as after receiving a kickoff, the play is known as a touchback and does not count in the scoring. When the offensive team suffers a safety, it must punt the ball to the opponents to restart play. Modern Football American football was made popular by teams representing colleges and universities. These teams dominated the game for most of the first 100 years of football in the United States. Even today, despite greatly increased interest in professional football, intercollegiate contests—played by some 640 team—are attended by more than 35 million spectators each year. Many college stadiums hold more than 50,000 spectators; one stadium, at the University of Michigan, holds more than 100,000. Many of the major universities are now grouped in conferences, such as the Big Ten (northern midwest), the Big Eight (midwest), the Pacific Ten (western states), the Southeastern Conference, and the Ivy League (northeast). The birth date of football in the United States is generally regarded by football historians as November 6, 1869, when teams from Rutgers and Princeton universities met in New Brunswick, New Jersey, for the first intercollegiate football game. In the early games, each team used 25 players at a time. By 1873 the number was reduced to 20 players, in 1876 to 15 players, and in 1880 to 11 players, where it has remained. In the 1900s, college football became one of the countrys most popular sports spectacles. Ranked among the greatest United States sports heroes of the 20th century are such student athletes as Jim Thorpe of Carlisle Institute; George Gipp of the University of Notre Dame; Red Grange of the University of Illinois; Tom Harmon of the University of Michigan; Doak Walker of Southern Methodist University; Glenn Davis and Doc Blanchard, the â€Å"Touchdown Twins† of Army (the U. S. Military Academy); Joe Namath of the University of Alabama; and O. J. Simpson of the University of Southern California. In 1935 the Downtown Athletic Club of New York City established an award honoring one of the outstanding college football coaches in the country, John William Heisman. Heisman is credited with legalizing the forward pass in 1906. The John W. Heisman Memorial Trophy is awarded annually to the outstanding college player of the year, as decided by a national poll of sportswriters. After World War II ended in 1945, college athletes began to receive football scholarships, often paying the players room, board, tuition, and incidental expenses while enrolled in college. College Bowl Games and National Champions. College teams generally play about 11 games during the fall. The best college teams are awarded trips to so-called bowl games, matching outstanding teams in games that conclude the seasons competition. The tradition was begun in 1902 at Pasadena, California, when Stanford University invited the University of Michigan to come to California for a New Years Day contest. This event soon became the celebrated Rose Bowl game. Bowl games now represent the climax of the college season. Other notable bowl games include the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, Texas; the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida; and the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans, Louisiana. In recognition of the great public interest in these games, major corporations now sponsor many of the bowls. Today, the champion college team is selected by national polls of coaches and sportswriters. In the accompanying table, the teams from 1889 to 1923 were Helms Athletic Foundation selections; from 1924 to 1930, Rissman Trophy winners; from 1931 to 1935, Rockne Memorial Trophy winners; from 1936 to today, Associated Press (AP) poll selections; and from 1950 to today, United Press International (UPI) poll selections. In cases where two teams won the honor in separate AP and UPI polls, a note has been made. Many members of the football community debate whether a poll of writers and coaches should determine a champion or whether the colleges should institute a more formal playoff system. Detractors of a playoff system argue that with such a system, the popular bowl games would lose their identity. In addition, players seasons would extend by one or two months, cutting into academic time. However, advocates for a playoff point to the controversial 1993 season in which the Florida State Seminoles won the number-one ranking over Notre Dame, a team that beat the Seminoles convincingly earlier in the season. Beginnings of Professional Football The first professional football game in the United States took place in 1895 in the town of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, between a team representing Latrobe and a team from Jeannette, Pennsylvania. In the following ten years many professional teams were formed, including the Duquesnes of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; the Olympics of McKeesport, Pennsylvania; the Bulldogs of Canton, Ohio; and the team of Massillon, Ohio. Among noted college players who took up the professional game during its early years were Willie Heston (formerly at the University of Michigan), Jim Thorpe (Carlisle Institute), Knute Rockne (University of Notre Dame), and Fritz Pollard (Brown University). The professional game attracted only limited public support during its first 30 years. The first league of professional football teams was the American Professional Football Association, formed in 1920. The admission fee was $100 per team. The teams pledged not to use any student player who still had collegiate eligibility left, as the good will of the colleges was believed to be essential to survival. The teams also agreed not to tamper with each others players. Jim Thorpe, a player-coach for one of the teams, became president of the league during its first year. The American Professional Football Association gave way in 1922 to the National Football League (NFL). Red Grange, the famous halfback from the University of Illinois, provided a tremendous stimulus for the league when he joined the Chicago Bears in 1925 and toured the United States that year and the next. His exciting play drew large crowds. Thereafter, professional football attracted larger numbers of first-rate college players, and the increased patronage made the league economically viable. Strategically, the early NFL game was hardly distinguishable from college football at that time. There was no attempt to break away from collegiate playbooks or rule books. For 13 years the NFL followed the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Rules Committee recommendations. In the leagues early years, players considered the low-paying NFL a part-time job and held other jobs during the day. Thus, while college coaches could drill their players daily for hours, professional football coaches arranged practices in the evenings, sometimes only three or four times a week. Development of Offensive Strategies The offensive techniques and formations prevalent in the contemporary game developed from the ideas of early and mid-20th century coaches such as Walter Camp, Alonzo Stagg, Pop Warner, Fielding â€Å"Hurry Up† Yost, Bob Zuppke, Knute Rockne, and Paul Brown. Following very few historical precedents, these men innovated unique strategies that changed the nature of football forever. Stagg, operating out of the early T-formation, originated the between-the-legs snap from center to quarterback and put a player in motion in the backfield before the snap of the ball. In 1906 Warner unbalanced his line, placing four players on one side of the center and two on the other side, while shifting the backfield into a wing formation. The quarterback functioned as a blocker, set close behind the line and a yard wide of the center. At the same depth, but outside the line, was the wingback. Deep in the backfield was the tailback, who received most of the snaps, and in front and to the side was the fullback. This formation became known as the â€Å"Single-Wing,† and it remained footballs basic formation until the 1940s. From the Single-Wing emerged Warners â€Å"Double-Wing,† with wingbacks set wide on either side of the line. This formation forced the defense to spread itself across the field in order to protect against the pass, thus creating favorable conditions for the offense to execute unexpected running plays. The strategy is the same as todays â€Å"draw† and â€Å"end-around† concepts, but Warners teams could also pass from the formation. Warner would also open up the lines completely, splitting the ends into modern â€Å"slot† positions, inside the wingbacks. This was a four-receiver formation that evolved into the â€Å"Shotgun† offense, popularized by the San Francisco 49ers of 1960. Like the double-wing, the â€Å"Shotgun† utilized two wideouts and two slot players, with the passer set deep in the backfield next to a running back. The NFLs newest formation of the 1990s, the â€Å"Run and Shoot† offense, also resembles Warners formation. With Warners innovations, wing formations came to dominate the NFL. Coach Zuppke at Illinois ran single- and double-wing formations, often sending four or five receivers downfield in pass patterns. Some teams would use a short-punt formation, with the quarterback and wings set on different sides, providing a more balanced look. At Notre Dame in 1923 and 1924, Rockne instituted his famous Four Horsemen offense. At the beginning of a play, Rockne set up the backs in a four-square, box alignment on one side. Then, in the famous â€Å"Notre Dame Shift,† the backs would shift out of the box and into a single or double wing. In later years, other coaches imitated Rocknes innovation and achieved similar success. For example, former Washington Redskins coach Joe Gibbs implemented an offensive strategy called the â€Å"Explode Package. † Modeled after Rocknes Notre Dame Shift, the Explode Package helped the Redskins defeat the Miami Dolphins in the 1983 Super Bowl. In Gibbss system, the backs and receivers would jump into new positions before the snap, thus unsettling the defense. Although talented, the quarterbacks of the 1930s and parts of the 1940s seldom completed 50 percent of their passes, while many were even less successful. A major cause of these low percentages was the primitive nature of pass-blocking schemes. With little protection, passers always had to throw while avoiding incoming rushers. In the 1940s Paul Brown, the coach of the Cleveland Browns, installed a blocking system which transformed the passing game forever. Brown changed the system by arranging the linemen in the form of a cup. They pushed most incoming pass-rushers to the outside. Anyone who penetrated the line was met by a firmly planted fullback named Marion Motley. From that point on, the passing game achieved a new significance. Other teams implemented strong blocking lines, providing the quarterback with more time to release the ball. The contemporary game of the 1980s and 1990s is noted for its exciting and effective passing plays in both the professional and college ranks. Artificial turf, the surface in many of the nations stadiums, provides excellent footing for quarterbacks and receivers. With strong protection, talented quarterbacks make a perceivable difference to a game. For example, quarterback Joe Montana keyed the San Francisco 49ers three Super Bowl victories in the 1980s. Montana, who benefited from good protection, could instinctively read defenses and had the ability to deliver the ball accurately to his receivers while on the move. In college football, the University of Miami Hurricanes dominated the game in the late 1980s with a flashy passing game and a quick defense that could react effectively to the pass. Development of Defensive Strategies One striking aspect of modern football is its emphasis on defense as well as offense. This trend began after World War II (1939-1945), when college teams were allowed free substitution of players—that is, a player could enter and leave the game an unlimited number of times, as long as the ball was not in play during the substitution. This feature of the game led to the modern two-platoon system, in which one group of 11 players enters the game to play offense and a second group enters to play defense. Such a system has fostered the development of individual skills and specialization among players. Defensive football has acquired an extensive terminology of its own. In some ways defense is more complicated than offense, because defensive teams have fewer restrictions on their manner of lining up. Generally, however, the defensive formation is determined by the way the offense lines up. For example, when defending against opponents who are expected to throw many forward passes, a team might use a formation with a four-player line of two ends and two tackles. Three linebackers would stand directly behind the front four. In addition, two cornerbacks placed wider and farther back could defend against mid-range assaults. Two safeties would position themselves deeper to protect against longer aerial attacks. Most of the innovative thinking by coaches in the NFL during the 1970s came on defense. Offensive statistics plummeted as defenses dominated. The newer game demanded speed at every position, in addition to strength and bulk. Great linebacker units with catchy names such as Doomsday in Dallas, Pittsburghs Steel Curtain, Minnesotas Purple People Eaters, and the Rams Fearsome Foursome dominated offenses. Teams turned the free safety position over to ferocious hitters such as the Raiders Jack Tatum and Dallas Cliff Harris. Rough, physical cornerbacks such as Pittsburghs Mel Blount and Oaklands Willie Brown employed tight bump-and-run techniques on receivers downfield. Professional Football Today. The present-day NFL game is immensely popular. It is played during the late summer, through autumn, and into January. Professional teams play 4 exhibition games before the start of the regular season, followed by 16 games in the regular season and then playoff games, when they qualify for the playoffs. Teams play one game each week, using the time between games to recover, practice, and prepare for the next game. Each team receives one week without a game, known as a bye, during the season. The NFL is a big business for players, owners, advertisers, and other industries tied to the sport. NFL franchises generate huge revenues for host cities, in addition to promoting civic pride and national exposure. Thus, cities often compete for teams, offering prospective teams bigger and better stadiums, guaranteed fan support, and various economic incentives. In the 1980s three NFL teams relocated: the Raiders moved from Oakland, California, to Los Angeles in 1982; the Colts moved from Baltimore, Maryland, to Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1984; and the Cardinals moved from Saint Louis, Missouri, to Phoenix, Arizona, in 1988. Other teams have agreed to stay only with the promise of new facilities by their host cities. Throughout the years, other consortiums have sought to capitalize on the economic potential of the sport. For three years in the 1980s a new professional spring league, the United States Football League (USFL), competed with the NFL. The NFL lost players to the USFL, and NFL teams had to pay higher salaries to keep other players from leaving. However, the USFL soon folded, with much of its more talented personnel entering the NFL. Super Bowl The Super Bowl is the final contest of the professional season and determines the leagues annual champion. Currently the Super Bowl routinely finishes among the all-time top 50 programs in television ratings, and the 1994 game reached an estimated 750 million viewers around the world. Now probably the most important single-day sporting event in the United States, the Super Bowl had more modest beginnings. In 1967 the champions of the American Football League (which merged with the NFL in 1970) and the NFL met in what was called the AFL-NFL World Championship Game. The name was later shortened to Super Bowl, named after a childs toy, the Super Ball. In this first game, the Green Bay Packers beat the Kansas City Chiefs, 35-10. The Los Angeles Coliseum, site of the game, fell far short of a sellout, although tickets were only $10 each. In comparison, the highest ticket price at the 1994 Super Bowl reached $250, with scalpers illegally charging more than twice that much. Rule Changes and Modern Developments The game of football has a history of constant rule changes. Rule changes have been implemented to bolster the excitement of the game of football and to increase the games safety. By 1906 the game was extremely rough, and many injuries and some deaths had occurred. Educators considered dropping the sport despite its popularity on campuses. United States President Theodore Roosevelt, an ardent advocate of strenuous sports, declared that the game must be made safer. As a result, football leaders revamped the game, and many of the rougher tactics were outlawed. In a constant attempt to maintain public interest in the game, NFL rulemakers review trends in their sport. For example, in the early 1970s, the rulemakers brought the hash marks in closer to the center of the field to give offenses more room to throw wide. The move, which increased scoring and made the game more exciting, also helped bolster the running game. Ten NFL runners gained more than 1000 yards in one season (1972) for the first time in history. During the next season, Buffalo Bills running back O. J. Simpson rushed for more than 2000 yards, the first time a player had gained that many yards in a single season. However, the passing game eventually suffered as defenses quickly adjusted. The Pittsburgh Steelers had a stranglehold on the NFL during the 1970s, with four Super Bowl victories. The dominant defensive athletes the Steelers put on the field shut down the wide-open passing attacks that had developed in the previous era. By 1977 scoring was the lowest it had been since 1942, while offensive touchdowns had fallen to their lowest levels since 1938. The rulemakers enacted serious measures after this low-scoring 1977 season, fearing a loss of public interest in the defense-dominated game. They established a zone of only five yards from the line of scrimmage in which a bump by a pass defender was permitted.